Summary: | As a direct sequel to a paper presented at the ISARS conference in Warsaw in 2011 under the heading “The Bear and the Plough: Shamanism in the Neolithic,” the present contribution attempts a further step forward, to the social context of mature chiefdoms and/or pristine states in the Western Mediterranean (early Rome and Sardinia) around the Bronze Age – Iron Age transition. Within this field, a number of archaeological, textual and ethnographic testimonies are discussed on the basis of new comparative research on winter masquerading in Europe, under the heading of “Carnival King of Europe” (www.carnivalkingofeurope.it), which may provide evidence for the metamorphoses of shamanic practices in the context of emerging religious fraternities and collective cults of that age. Espousing an evolutionist paradigm, the paper also draws some suggestions from Julian Jaynes’s seminal work, applied to the emergence of the anthropomorphic mask in proto-history as a marker of modern human consciousness
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